domain being investigated.

based upon evidence of scientific principles.

guiding hypothesis.

a. Procedures that incorporate appropriate protection (e.g., no

b. Appropriate tools, units of measurement and degree of accuracy.

c. Components that reflect current scientific knowledge and

available technology .

d. Use of scientific terminology that supports the identified

data.

by peer review (e.g., students, scientists or local interest

groups).

to others (e.g., power point, web site, posters,

etc.).

applied to civic, economic or social issues.

and technology for further investigations.

based on their physical, chemical and nuclear properties.

a. Atoms have a dense nucleus containing positively charged

protons and neutral neutrons. The number of protons in the

nucleus determines the identity of an element.

b. The nucleus of an atom is surrounded by much lighter

negatively-charged electrons in .mostly empty space.

c. In neutral atoms the number of protons and electrons is

a. Substances (elements, compounds) differ from one another

based on their physical, chemical and nuclear properties.

temperature changes incrementally (doubles, triples, etc.).

Science Concepts:

a. There are specific proportional relationships that exist

among volume, pressure, temperature and amount of gas

(mass) in a system.

within a system (e.g., hydrogen bonding, van der Waals

forces, fluorescent light, stars).

Science Concepts:

a. Solids, liquids and gases differ in distance and angles

between atoms or molecules and the energy that binds

them.

b. Plasma is another state of matter composed of electrons

and positive ions that have been separated by collisions at

very high temperatures.

and amount of gas affect each other (PV=nRT) in

a system.

Science Concepts:

a. There are specific relationships that exist between volume,

pressure, temperature and amount of gas (moles).

a. Different compounds require different amounts of energy

for phase change due to their unique molecular structure.

investigation (e.g. oxidation, reduction, acid/base

reactions).

Science Concepts:

a. The mass of reactants of any chemical reaction is the same

as the mass of the products of that chemical reaction (The

total mass of reactants is also the same as the total mass of

products in a chemical reaction.).

a. The numbers of atoms of the reactants of any chemical

reaction are the same as the numbers of atoms of the products

of that chemical reaction.

Students demonstrate their understanding of Chemical Change

by…

of the substances in a chemical reaction caused by a

transfer of heat energy from that reaction. (e.g., exothermic

and endothermic reactions).

Science Concepts:

a. During a chemical change, energy is absorbed or released

(e.g., AMP, ADP, ATP or burning wood).

the nucleus of an atom, resulting in a completely different

element.

reaction and those of a nuclear decay reaction.

the universal forces from strongest to weakest.

Science Concepts:

a. The number of neutrons in the nucleus can vary and gives

rise to different isotopes of an element.

b. Certain nuclear configurations lead to radioactive decay,

producing alpha and beta particles, and ultimately a different

element.

c Nuclear forces, which exist only within the nucleus of an

atom, are the forces that hold the nucleus of an atom together

and are much stronger than either gravitational or electrical

forces.

alpha, beta and gamma radiation.

Science Concepts:

a. Gamma radiation may also be produced.

to predict the approximate age of a material (See Half-

Life Investigation on VI website).

Science Concepts:

a. Radioactive decay occurs at a predictable rate (half-life)

which allows radioactivity to be used for estimating the age of

materials that contain radioactive substances.

which has horizontal and free fall motion (i.e., football, bullet).

Science Concept:

a. Motion is relative. The motion of an object is observed

and measured relative to a given frame of reference (point

of view) (e.g. trees flashing by when sitting in a moving

vehicle).

b. Acceleration occurs when an object undergoes a change

in velocity over time (speed up, slow down, change direction).

c. .Motion is predictable; a falling object increases speed in

a predictable pattern as it falls.

d. Motion is predictable; projectile motion combines a uniform

horizontal motion and free-fall motion simultaneously.

which has horizontal and free fall motion (i.e., football,

bullet).

Science Concept:

a. Motion is predictable; a falling object increases speed in

a predictable pattern as it falls.

b. Motion is predictable; projectile motion combines a

uniform horizontal motion and free-fall motion simultaneously.

each of a series of situations (i.e., kicking a sand-filled football,

moving a bowl of soup quickly across the table).

Science Concept:

a. An object at rest or moving uniformly (in a straight line)

will remain so unless acted upon by an external unbalanced

(net) force. (Newton’s Third Law The Law of Inertia) (e.g.,

We wear seatbelts, because our body has a tendency to keep

moving when the vehicle stops.).

force accelerating the mass is changed (e.g., cart with variable

weights on horizontal table attached to a string with weights).

changed (e.g., cart with variable weights on horizontal table

attached to a string with weights).

a. If an unbalanced force acts on an object it will accelerate;

the acceleration is proportional to the net force and inversely

proportional to the mass of the object. (Newton’s Law F=ma)

(e.g. A vehicle accelerates more slowly when it’s full of passengers.)

b. Whenever one object exerts a force on a second object, a

force equal in magnitude but opposite in direction is exerted

on the first object. (Forces always arise in pairs) (e.g., When

you lean against a wall, the wall pushes back at you.)

(Newton’s Law of Action/ Reaction).

a. The force of gravity is a universal force of attraction between

ANY two objects and is proportional to the masses of

those two objects and weakens rapidly with the distance between

the objects (e.g., More mass produces more force; less

distance produces more force) (e.g., small objects on earth,

bodies in the solar system).

mass of the system or the force accelerating the mass is

changed (e.g., cart with variable weights on horizontal

table attached to a string with weights).

Science Concept:

a. If an unbalanced force acts on an object it will accelerate;

the acceleration is proportional to the net force and

inversely proportional to the mass of the object.

(Newton’s Law F=ma) (e.g., A vehicle accelerates more

slowly when it’s full of passengers.)

changes when mass changes; or when distance changes.

Science Concept:

a. The force of gravity is a universal force of attraction

between two objects and is proportional to the product of

the masses of those two objects and inversely proportional

to the square of the distance between objects. (i.e. F = G

forms of energy, particularly within chemical reactions.

(transformation) that occur in different situations (e.g.,

chemical, biological, physical) through analysis of the input

and output energies in a system (e.g., calorimetry, specific

heat of water, heat of fusion of water).

electrical systems, the effectiveness of insulating materials,

the human thermostat—hypothermia/homeostasis).

Science Concepts:

a. Different energy levels are associated with different configurations

within atoms and molecules (firework explosions).

b. The total energy in an isolated system remains constant

regardless of transformation. (Whenever the amount of energy

in one place or form diminishes, the amount in other

places or forms increases by an equivalent amount.).

c. Whenever energy is transformed from one form to another,

some energy becomes less available (heat) energy

(ENTROPY = heat/temperature e.g., such as from engines,

electrical wires, how-water tanks, our bodies, stereo systems).

result of electromagnetic forces.

Science Concept:

a. Electrical force is a universal force that arises from charge

and can be attractive (between different charges) or repulsive

(between similar charges).

b. The strength of the electrical force is proportional to the

amount of charge and weakens rapidly with distance between

the charges.

c. Mechanical forces such as tension, compression and friction

are manifestations of electrostatic forces between atoms

and molecules.

their frequencies and to discrete changes in energy levels

within atoms.

Science Concepts:

a. Electromagnetic energy has both wave and particle

properties.

a. An electromagnetic force is a universal force that acts

within and between atoms and is vastly stronger than the

gravitational forces between atoms (Strength depends

upon how much charge is present.).

b. Electricity and magnetism are two aspects of an electromagnetic

force. Moving electrical charges produce magnetic

forces and moving magnets produce electrical forces.

a. Electromagnetic energy has both wave and particle

properties.

in water, sound waves, seismic waves).

a. Mechanical waves are periodic disturbances of matter.

b. Accelerating electrical charges produce electromagnetic

waves around them. Some of these appear as

radiation (e.g. radio waves, microwaves radiant heat, visible

light, ultra-violet rays, and x-rays).

membrane.

cellular organelles (mitochondria, ribosomes, lysosomes, endoplasmic

reticulum, cytoplasm) in biochemical pathways

within the cell (e.g. mitochondria and chloroplasts : cellular

respiration and photosynthesis; nucleus and ribosomes : DNA

transcription and protein synthesis).

each of the four types of organic molecules determine its role

in maintaining cell survival (i.e., simple carbohydrates

[monosaccharides] can be an energy source as a single molecule

and a storage/structural molecule when multiple units are

chemically combined—[starch, cellulose, chitin].).

the shape of a protein (i.e., sickle cell hemoglobin).

Science Concepts:

a. There are four basic types of organic compounds found in

a cell (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids).

b. Enzymes, proteins that regulate biochemical reactions, are

critical to the survival of cells.

c. The molecular structure of a cell membrane allows for

elective transfer of substances into and out of the cell. (i.e.,

diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, active transport).

d. The shape of proteins in a cell determines the structure and

function of that cells, hence survival of the organism (i.e.,

cytoskeleton, biochemical functions).

the synthesis of specific proteins needed by a cell (e.g.,

protein synthesis).

Science Concepts:

a. Every body cell in an organism contains the identical genome

(DNA) which is maintained from one cell generation to

the next by mitosis and DNA replication.

b. The genetic information in a cell’s DNA is used to direct

the synthesis of the thousands of proteins that each cell requires,

however only portions of the genome are active in any

one cell.

c. Genetic variation in cells arises from gamete formation and

sexual reproduction.

Vermont Department of Education (Science Grade Expectations)

organisms to comparable structures in multicellular organisms

(i.e., oral groove, gullet, food vacuole in Paramecium

compared to digestive systems in multicellular organisms).

a. Cell differentiation is regulated through the expression of

different genes within the embryo cells. During embryonic

development of complex multicellular organisms, chemicals

within the cells deactivate portions of the genetic code as influenced

by the cell’s environment and past history.

b. Unicellular organisms lack differentiation, but sub-cellular

units carry out all life functions.

through an organism to the cellular level, and through the cell

from assimilation through storage in ATP.

chemical and physical conditions.

Science Concepts:

a. In living systems energy flows through matter and is stored

and released through chemical reactions. Basic survival energy

transformations between cells and their environment

include aerobic and anaerobic respiration and photosynthesis

reactions.

Energy is necessary for work to be accomplished and life to

be sustained (e.g., At the cellular level this work can be

growth, repair, reproduction, and synthesis.) .

b. Energy is stored in living systems in ATP molecules. Energy

is transformed through living systems from the environment

through specific cell organelles and specific chemical

processes.

c. Energy transformations in living systems are enzymedependent.

trophic levels in a given ecosystem.

Science Concept:

a. Energy from the sun enters all ecosystems through photosynthesis,

is passed through trophic levels (producers, consumers,

decomposers) with energy released as heat at every

level until all the original energy is eventually released as

heat (Energy Pyramid and 10% Rule).

Paramecium—roundworm).

Science Concept:

a. Within ecosystems, the processes of photosynthesis and

cell respiration recycle matter (i.e., carbon compounds) found

within organisms and the abiotic environment.

with one altered by human activities (e.g., acid rain, eutrophication

through agricultural runoff, fertilizer, pollution,

solid waste, clear cutting, toxic emissions or conservation

and habitat reclamation).

Science Concept:

a. Human beings are part of the earth’s ecosystems; human

activities can deliberately or inadvertently, alter the equilibrium

in an ecosystem.

Science Concept:

a. Matter (inorganic compounds) used by living things on

the molecular level is cycled from old life to new life

C-O, P).

species (e.g., DNA or amino acid sequences).

Science Concepts:

a. Formal classification systems of organisms (Domain,

Kingdom, Phylum…) are based upon molecular similarities

and differences among organisms.

b. A species is the most fundamental unit of classification.

Similarity of species (degree of kinship) can be substantiated

by the molecular composition (e.g., DNA /amino acid

sequences).

antibiotics, neck of the giraffe, animal camouflage).

Science Concepts:

a. The diversity of present-day organisms resulted from

changes over time in many ancestral organisms.

b. Evolution (change over time) is based on variety within

species. A greater variation within a species increases the

possibility of species survival under changing conditions.

Life on earth is thought to have begun four billion years

ago, as simple, one-celled organisms about some of which

still exist today.

c. Natural Selection provides a mechanism for evolution

and leads to organisms well-suited for survival in a particular,

existing environment.

d. Species result from evolution due to:

competition

of offspring best suited to a particular environment

e. Molecular evidence supports other types of evidence

for evolution.

result from sexual reproduction (e.g., dominant/recessive

traits).

physical/chemical characteristics of the human body (e.g.,

sickle-cell anemia, cancer).

somatic cells and that of sex cells (gametes).

Science Concept: (Human Heredity)

a. Instructions for specified characteristics of an organism

are carried in DNA. (NSES) The information passed from

parents to offspring is coded in DNA molecules. DNA

molecules are long chains linking just four kinds of

smaller molecules, whose sequence encodes genetic information.

b. The human body is formed from cells that contain homologous

parrs two copies of each chromosome.

c. New heritable characteristics can result from new combinations

of existing genes or from mutations of genes in

reproductive cells.

d. All body cells have identical genetic information, but its

expression may be very different from one cell to another

due to the instructions given to different types of cells.

reproduction results in a great variety of possible

gene combinations (Include value of meiosis, but not

phases).

some can produce organisms with new and perhaps

enhanced capabilities and some can be deleterious.

chemicals (legal and illegal) and are passed on to

offspring when they occur in sex cells.

alter genes.

low rates, but can affect the organism in many ways

or may go unnoticed.

e. Gene mutations in a cell can result in uncontrolled division

called cancer. Exposure of cells to certain chemicals

and radiation increases mutations and thus chances of cancer.

(environmental/.behavioral) (e.g., exercise, fight/flight,

stress, drugs, normal cellular metabolism, any nervous

system response).

and by life experience (e.g., effects of malnutrition).

human species (reproductive success) (e.g., anorexia

and/or steroid use, radiation/toxic wastes/drug use,

mutagenic agents and/or improper diet/obesity).

Science Concepts:

a. All systems of the body are continually working together

(communicating) to maintain balance (homeostasis)

by responding to internal and external stimuli, (e.g., cellcell

(B and T lymphocyte interaction, neurotransmitter

secretion by nerve cells); organ-organ (hormones trigger

target cells; motor impulses trigger muscles); system

(respiratory/circulatory/excretory system interactions, endocrine/

digestive/motor and biochemical responses to

stress); external stimuli-organism (hypo/hyperthermia,

chemical stimuli affect organs/systems/whole organism;

sense reception, nerve response)

b. Human behavior is determined by the state of our internal

biochemical environment, our heredity and our life

experiences (e.g., innate/learned behaviors).

c. Reproduction is necessary for survival of a species.

(e.g., in vitro fertilization, fetal alcohol syndrome, hormone

imbalances, stress).

how specific biological abnormalities alter the normal

functioning of human systems (e.g., feedback diagram).

of the human immune system (e.g., retroviruses).

Science Concepts:

a. The Human Body protects itself against infectious diseases

(caused by microorganisms, viruses, animal parasites)

through physical protection and physiological

(immune) responses.

b. The Immune System is designed to protect against microscopic

organisms (bacteria, fungi) and foreign substances

that enter from outside the body and against some

cancer cells that arise within.

c. Some allergic responses are caused by the body’s immune

responses to usually harmless environmental substances.

d. Humans have a variety of mechanisms—sensory, motor,

emotional, social and technological—that can reduce

and modify health hazards (e.g. blinking, fight or flight,

coping mechanisms, medicine).

e. The severity of human disease depends upon many factors,

such as resistance to disease the virulence of the infecting

organism.

f. Biological abnormalities, such as injuries or chemical

imbalance, cause or increase susceptibility to disease (e.g.

hormonal imbalance, epilepsy, depression). (Atlas 91)

g. (EXTENSION) Some viral diseases, such as AIDS,

destroy critical cells of the immune system.

of other vertebrate organisms (e.g., amphibians and reptiles

and birds and mammals).

human embryonic or fetal life.

Science Concepts:

a. Human development begins with a single cell formed by

fusion of egg cell and sperm cell and continues through

nine months of further development and growth, similar to

the development of other animals with backbones; and

differences in an embryo’s environment can influence the

path of development.

b. During human gestation and development a balance is

necessary between brain size and birth size, therefore humans

need more time after birth for full development of

the brain and nervous system than other vertebrates.

c. The long period of human development is associated

with the prominent role of the brain.

d. The use of technologies to maintain, prolong sustain or

terminate life raise social, moral, ethical and legal issues.

of inner and outer planets.

of the planets (e.g., inner vs. outer planets).

Science Concepts:

a. Our solar system developed from a giant cloud of gas

and debris of exploding stars 4.6 billion years ago, and

everything on earth, including organisms, is made of this

material.

b. As the earth and other planets formed, the heavier elements

fell to their centers. On planets close to the sun

(Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars) the lightest elements

were mostly blown or boiled away by radiation from the

newly formed sun; on the outer planets (Jupiter, Saturn,

Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto) the lighter elements still surround

them as deep atmospheres f gas or as frozen solid

layers.

gravity, fusion and energy release.

effect on the Universe today, citing evidence to support its

occurrence (Doppler effect/red shift).

our understanding of the vastness (i.e., light years) and the

nature of the universe (e.g., Ptolemy, Copernicus, Kepler,

Einstein).

Science Concepts:

a. Stars formed by gravitational clumping of hydrogen and

helium out of clouds of molecules of these lightest elements

until nuclear fusion of these light elements into

heavier ones began to occur, releasing great amounts of

energy over millions of years. The process of star formation

continues today, as some stars explode, creating new

clouds from which other stars from and eventually dissipate

with changes in matter and energy Stars differ in

size, temperature and age, but appear to be made of the

same elements found on earth and behave according to the

same physical principles.

b.. The Universe expanded explosively into being perhaps

between 10 and 20 billion years ago from a hot, dense,

chaotic mass.

c. The nature of electromagnetic waves (radio waves-- the

longest, to gamma rays, the shortest) has provided a useful

tool to determine the movement of objects in the Universe.

Because light from almost all distant galaxies has

longer wavelengths that comparable light here on earth,

astronomers believe the whole Universe is continuing to

expand. Mathematical models and computer simulations

are used to study evidence from many sources to explain

events in the Universe. A variety of increasingly sophisticated

technology is used to learn about the Universe (e.g.,

visual telescopes, radio telescopes, X-ray telescopes, computers,

space probes, atomic accelerators.

d. Scientific theories on the nature of the Universe have

evolved significantly through the past 2000+ years

(Ptolemy, Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo), and new views are

emerging.

decay and pressure affects the Rock Cycle.

nitrogen, oxygen atoms) move through the earth’s reservoirs

(soil, atmosphere, bodies of water, organisms).

Science Concepts:

a. The formation, weathering, sedimentation and reformation

of rock constitutes a continuing "rock cycle" in which

the total amount of material remains the same, while its

form changes.

b. The earth’s systems have internal sources of energy

(heat), such as radioactive decay and pressure which create

heat.

c. The earth is a system containing essentially a fixed

amount of each stable chemical atom or element. Movement

of this matter between reservoirs, driven by the

earth’s internal and external sources of energy, is often

accomplished by a change in the physical and chemical

properties of the matter in the solid earth atmosphere and

organisms.

and volcanic activity (e.g. Mid-Atlantic Ridge,

North American and European plate collisions producing

the Green Mountains).

relative age of the rock structure.

the age of different rock structures (e.g. relative dating

vs. C-dating vs. K-Ar dating. If rock structure is less than

500,000 years old, K-Ar dating cannot be used and Cdating

can only be used for tens of thousands of years).

Science Concepts:

a. The convection circulation of the earth’s mantle slowly

moves the solid crustal sections of the earth’s continents

and ocean basins over the denser, hot layers beneath—

separating in some areas and pressing against one another

in other areas resulting in plate collisions—mountain

building—volcanic activity—islands.

b. Interactions among solid earth, atmosphere, oceans and

organisms have resulted in ongoing change of earth’s systems

(e.g., effects of earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and

glacial activity).

c. The age and changes of the earth and its inhabitants can

be extrapolated from rock sequences and fossils in the

earth’s sediments and land forms and also through the decay

rates of radioactive isotopes, indicating a long history

(Lyell’s Principles of Geology, fossil records, Charles

Darwin).

makeup of atmosphere).

systems (e.g., land and sea breezes and global wind patterns,

Coriolis effect).

map data (barometric pressure, frontal systems, isobars,

isotherms, mountain effects, lake/ocean effects, ocean currents,

temperature/humidity) and examining world weather

maps and identifying the most likely locations where extreme

weather might occur (e.g., blizzards thunderstorms,

hurricanes, tornadoes).

Science Concepts:

a. Of all the diverse planets and moons in the solar system,

earth’s unique physical/chemical characteristics, its position,

its atmosphere and its intensity of solar radiation that

allows for the existence of liquid water. Water is a unique

molecule generating unique properties that influence the

earth’s weather (ability to retain heat, melting, boiling, and

freezing points). The intensity of radiation from the sun

allows water to cycle between liquid and vapor, which

supports life as we know it on earth.

b. The earth’s climatic patterns and weather are governed

by the transfer of heat energy between atmosphere and

land and oceans. Heat transfer at boundaries of atmosphere

and oceans causes the circulation of wind and ocean currents,

which influence the composition (temperature and

moisture content) and the movement of large air masses).

c. The meeting of air masses with different characteristics

causes our most.

impact of different management plans (e.g., management

of forests depends upon use, lumber production, sugarbush,

deer habitat, mining, recreation) within the management

area (forest, farmland, rivers, streams).

cycle, disposal of wastes and recycling of nutrients (e.g.,

flooding, former mining sites, glacial impact, deforestation,

recovery of rivers from sewage/chemical dumping,

burning of fossil fuels).

effect will be on organisms (e.g., acid precipitation, global

warming. ozone depletion, pollution of water by phosphates,

mercury, PCBs, etc.).

everyday object from the original raw materials to its

final destination after human use, considering alternate

routes—including extraction of raw material, production

and transportation, energy use and waste disposal throughout,

packaging and recycling and/or disposal (e.g., aluminum

can, steel).

Science Concepts:

a. Human activities can enhance potential for accelerating

rates of natural change.

b. Natural ecosystems provide many basic processes that

affect humans—maintenance of atmospheric quality, generation

of soils, control of the water cycle, disposal of

wastes and recycling of nutrients, etc.

c. Materials and habits from human societies affect both

physical and chemical cycles on earth, and human alteration

of these cycles can be detrimental to all organisms.

d. Natural ecosystems provide the raw materials for the development

of many products for human use (e.g. steel,

glass, fertilizers).